Project Governance

Abstract Project governance has become popular in the workplaces, as it addresses lack of accountability in project performance. Project governance is mostly associated with information technology projects; project–based firm develop as a result of management. Today, due to the advancing technology, many firms rely on projects in order to be innovative.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Project Governance specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Flexibility is therefore needed in order to allow firms to combine skills and capabilities. This paper elaborates more on project governance, its importance, challenges, and different mechanisms associated with project governance. The paper further elaborates project governance structure in detail and the role of the steering committee and that of the project manager. This research aims at conveying an understanding on the importance of effective project governance, whi ch will contribute to the success of a project other than a failure. Every firm should incorporate project governance, as it assists in monitoring and making firm decisions. Indeed, firms that do not have project governance are mostly associated with fraud and mal-practice. Project Governance Project governance can be described as a framework in which decisions regarding projects are made. According to Renz (2007, p19), â€Å"project governance is a process-oriented system by which projects are strategically directed, intergratively managed, and holistically controlled, in an entrepreneurial and ethically reflected way, appropriate to the singular, time-wise limited, interdisciplinary and complex context.† Normally, management is effective in developing projects that represent organizational structure. Project governance contributes towards solving information and knowledge issues, as it proposes towards the system of strategically directing and controlling projects that invo lve operational and governance level. In addition, project governance provides a structure that aids in meeting objectives of the project, how to obtain the objectives, and how to monitor performance in the place of work (Turner, 2007, p.104). The level of governance must be clearly defined, which is the managerial level that controls the resources in a project. Therefore, the absence of governance in any organization can be interpreted as mismanagement that is equal to fraud. Moreover, good project governance includes an effective mode of communication and an effective assignment of duties and responsibilities.Advertising Looking for assessment on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Project Governance Mechanisms Project governance is associated with an organization process of sharing decisions concerning projects and monitoring those projects. According to (Vallabhaneni, 2009, n.d), â€Å"project governance mechanisms include establishing a project steering committee and project oversight board and conducting a project management audit.† This committee reviews an organization’s functions, but focuses on a specific project at a time. It reviews the scope, impact, funding, challenges, costs, benefits, progress and solves problems that are related to the project. Most development organizations have adopted project governance; however, effective project governance is important, as it is associated with several mechanisms. These mechanisms encourage behavior that should be consistent with an organization’s values, norms, and strategy and mission (PM4DEV, 2008, p.108). The main objective of project governance is to establish effective levels of authority and decision-making, whereby, people and policies are involved in order to provide a framework for decision-making. The roles and responsibilities for the employees involved in a project are defined, and their level of in teraction and co-ordination are considered. An organization management team is held responsible for implementing and supporting a governance structure before the project starts. It is important for management to document the roles and responsibilities; this project governance document should assist in the definition of the decision-making structure, role, and duties of the stakeholders, and the processes involved in the project. According to PM4DEV (2008, p109), some organizations have a standing project governance, which means that the committee overseas all projects, thus defining the decision making structure. According to Nickerson Zenger (2004 p7), markets, authority based hierarchies and consensus based hierarchies are the mechanisms of project governance. Further, they explain how they relate to decision rights, communication channels, and incentives to motivate search in an organization.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on Project Governance specific ally for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the market mechanism, a manager decides on how to create knowledge and the best way of utilizing the knowledge and when to disperse the knowledge. Therefore, marketing governance determines the search for valuable information. Due to the prices present in a market, incentives are provided in order to motivate the search for the needed solutions. Each problem requires a solution, which is yielded from a decision made, thus leading to a marketable solution that will be of benefit to an organization. Nickerson Zenger (2004 p7) state that â€Å"markets provide high-powered incentive that motivate actor to pursue trials that expand their knowledge or the sale of products and services based on that knowledge.† The sharing of knowledge on a particular project requires a common language, which is used to communicate; however, markets do not provide strong incentive that formulates a common language. The aut hor further explains that markets have failed as project governance mechanisms, since problems have become more complex. Markets are seen to discourage information sharing rather that a promoter in knowledge sharing; indeed, markets incentives only benefit an individual, other that majority of people. In addition, market incentives do not work towards implementing a common language that would ensure effective sharing of information. However, markets are efficient in finding solutions to organizational problems, but they fail due to ineffective knowledge sharing method. Authority–based hierarchy is a key to decision making and aids in transfer of knowledge. Therefore, in problem solving, authority is necessary in managing of knowledge sharing. In addition, employees grant a manager the authority he needs, and as a result, they attain their wages. Therefore, the knowledge employees receive at the workplace earn them wages for their performance. Authority does not automatically imply presence of expertise; therefore, in case authority is exercised in absence of knowledge, the authority is ineffective. However, authority-based hierarchy is effective when searching for solutions to organizational problems (Nickerson Zenger, 2004, p.9).Advertising Looking for assessment on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Consensus–based hierarchy supports knowledge transfer within the organization by educating each other on the knowledge acquired, thus forming a clear direction on the choice of project and how to solve the associated problems. In addition, the control and monitoring mechanisms, include tools that support the planning and implementation of projects, and monitor thee activities to ensure that the initial project objectives are met (Robinson H, et al, 2010 p76). Project governance involves major decision-making, whereby, a project manager has to make some key decisions that pertain to the project. Nevertheless, those issues that the project manager cannot handle may be referred to the project board. Moreover, project governance may impact positively on customers and suppliers in that, a customer is required to be more involved in the project, thus accepting project ownership. When organizations face an increase in capital works, there is need to increase resourcing in the suppli er on business. Decision-making Effective project governance yields to quality decision making, as the project decisions are aligned with the organizational objectives. In addition, proper allocation of resources is ensured across all project; the presence of an effective project governance results to stable and clear decisions. Nevertheless, when a project is in its initiation stage, it requires project governance that will assist is overseeing and controlling the project. Managers should be able to asses the project progress, but ineffective decision-making may lead to failure of the project. According to Kerzner Sponholtz (2011, p.19), â€Å"governance relates to decisions that define expectations, accountability, responsibility, granting of power, and verifying of performance.† Therefore, governance allows effective and efficient decisions to take place in a project. However, due to the large committees involved in project governance, decision-making appears to be slow, as every member wants his /her interests to be considered. Dynamics of Leadership Behavior A leader’s presence is important in any business; therefore, when a firm is dealing with project, it is important for them to acknowledge a project manager that will oversee the process of the project from its initiation stage to its final stage. Leadership in a project is very important, as a certain type of leadership style could lead to either the success or failure of a project. However, culture, customs, and the nature of project may influence the management style used. Autocratic style of leadership involves decision-making process only among the senior management; as a result, the employees are expected to abide by the management decisions. Communication channel follows a downward approach, whereby, orders and instructions are passed from the top leaders to the subordinates. This style of leadership is advantageous as the direction of a project remains constant and decisions are similar, thus portraying a well-managed project (PM4DEV, 2008 p107). The paternalistic style of leadership involves a manager making decision with the employee’s interests in mind, rather than giving all the attention to the project only. The manager takes the initiative of explaining all the decisions regarding the project to the employees. There is the presence of employee motivation in this type of leadership as opposed to autocratic style. This type of leadership creates a sense of loyalty from the employees as their social needs are met. However, the employees assigned to the project may become more dependants on their manager, such that, in case the manager makes wrong decisions, they completely loose faith in him. The democratic style of leadership involves both the leader and the employees in that, the employees take part in decision-making process. Where quality decisions are required, the style of leadership is effective, since employees, opinions are inclusive. Lai ssez-faire requires the manager’s role to be marginal, such that employees have specific areas in which they manage within the project. The communication channel is equal in both sides; however, not much is communicated, thus resulting to poor management of the project. This results from staff lack of direction and focus; hence, the project image is affected. Organizational Structure According to Robinson et al (2010 p75), â€Å"an effective organizational structure defines the reporting structure, lines of accountability, project manager’s role, and responsibilities within a project team.† Therefore, there is need for a good governance structure and mechanisms that is used for making decisions and reporting on project plans among others. To enhance effective project delivery through accountability, strategic goals should be clear to the senior management; thus, they are capable of overseeing project programmes, hence being in a position of managing projects ris k before they affect the capability of the project. At the project level, departmental priorities must be understood, thus making it easier for the staff to identify and manage risks. A project team needs clear definition of their role and responsibilities and a vision. A reporting structure in any organization elaborates how power and control run throughout the organization. Therefore, the reporting structure provides a clear accountability and decision-making. An organizational structure may consist of co-ordinate work streams and the project team reporting to a team manager while he reports to the project board or the project steering committee. A complex organizational structure may make the process of decision making difficult and long. A reliable approval system ensures that there is a good coordination between different project teams within the organization. Moreover, the control and monitoring mechanism spot arising risks and find mitigating measures before they completely c orrupt the project. According to Robinson et al. (2010, p89), project controls keep the project according to plan, regarding time and within the budget. Each project needs an appropriate level of control, as too much control may be unmanageable, while minimal control yields to high costs to the project. Therefore, a control system should be simple and robust; that will ensure that project developments align with the organizational objectives. Project Governance Structure Project governance structure entails a framework that is used to govern a particular project; it includes â€Å"a number of committees and their roles with agreed responsibilities and decision-making rules† (Muller, 2009). Any changes in budgets or schedules are represented to the project governance structure body, such as the project steering committee, which plays a vital role in the planning and directing the project. The project governance structure needs the project steering committee in order to survive in terms of sufficient budget to deliverables. The project steering committee makes vital decisions concerning the governance structure and includes senior managers who monitor and give strategic direction to the team involved in the project, as well as to the stakeholders. The committee also gives recommendations pertaining to the project and holds discussions on strategies and arising opportunities for the project. They also review and approve project development strategies and resolve conflicts between stakeholders. An effective project governance structure is very important in an organization; however, leaders of a project may determine the effectiveness of a project governance structure. Realistic expectations should be set regarding the project governance, since these expectations determine its success. The project steering group should develop collaboration with the project manager in order to ensure that the project objectives are clear to both parties, which would result t o the success of the project. When both parties embrace flexibility and solidarity and ensure that there are proper communication channels, there is a high possibility for a project to prosper. Nevertheless, the steering committee expects the project manager to follow the project’s methodology in a rigorous and flexible manner. Both parties should be flexible, and open communication and mutual understanding should be their key goals. Therefore, a project manager should be given authority to handle the daily arising issues regarding the project, without necessarily having to involve the steering committee (Muller, 2009, p.78). However, when a project gets too difficult, trust in the manager’s competence is normally lost; therefore the steering committee may decide to replace the project manager. In some cases, the two parties fail to communicate through video conferencing or via traveling as a measure of reducing cost, however, they agree on communicating only when crit ical issues arises. Therefore, communication between the two parties is reduced and this could lead to loss of clarity of the project’s objective. Hence, effective working relationships may be lost and this could be the downfall of the project. Communication is a vital factor when dealing with any business; lack of effective communication could lead to misaligning of the organization’s objectives by the project manager, thus resulting to failure in projects. Therefore, there should be a clear exchange of information between both parties. It is however important for the project manager to understand the steering committee requirements towards the project, including its objectives, priorities and specifications. Incase of any danger, a project manager should alert the committee on time, so that the problem can be attended to as fast as possible (Muller, 2009 p80). An example of a governance structure (Treasury board of Canada secretariat, 2008) Challenges associated wit h project governance According to World Bank (2009, p.40), project governance is usually associated with frequent changes in the project team, which could interfere with the accomplishment of the project. Lack of resources and frequent reliance on advisers for decision-making results in the organization spending a lot of money. Due to an effective delegation of power, decision-making takes longer as all the decisions have to be referred to the senior management. Poor management of resources may also arise from interference from external advisers due to the big size of the project committee; indeed, it is often impossible to organize a meeting that each member will be present in. According to Garland (2009, p.113), organizations are faced with different challenges when implementing project governance framework. When implementing new project governance, some changes are evident in the organization. The project governance has the duty of ensuring that project deliveries are on time, th us strengthening the relationship. Nevertheless, an organization may be reluctant to delegate full authority to the project board, due to fear of not receiving all the information concerning the project. Recommendation For any organization to achieve an effective project governance structure, the management must ensure that there is accountability for the success of the project. A project with a clear understanding of who assumes responsibility for its success has a clear leadership, however, when a project does not have a clear accountability for its success, there is no clear guidance to attain solutions for difficult situations. Secondly, the â€Å"assets delivered by the project meet the service delivery needs of the organisation,† to meet its value for money (Garland, 2009). Failure to meet these needs deems the project as a failure, since service delivery ownership determine the project ownership. Thirdly, there should be a separation of stakeholder management from the decision-making activities. Large committees may fail to make quick decisions, but politics are involved, in that, some stakeholders may feel that their needs were not met. Therefore, any induced mechanism must meet the needs of the stakeholders. Fourthly, project governance should be separated from organizational governance structures. Project governance is mainly established with an aim of providing a framework for the project. Since projects need flexible and quick decisions, project governance ensures that key decision makers are placed in a forum, thus ensuring a quick decision making process, one that is not associated with hierarchies. Conclusion Introducing project governance in an organization will probably cause some changes; hence, it is important for the management to identify those areas that will be greatly affected by project governance in order to induce methods that can manage such areas, so that they may result to success. After introducing project governance, it i s important to introduce mechanisms that will contribute to accountability and transparency. Governance is a solution for organizations, but it requires the support of the organization’s executives. Nevertheless, lack of effective project governance may lead to a project failure, hence, loss of incentives that were allocated to such a project. Therefore, effective governance should ensure that projects deliver the intended value that is expected from them. When an appropriate framework is put in place, it will ensure that money is saved, as it is only used as budgeted. In addition, good project governance includes an effective mode of communication and an effective assignment of duties and responsibilities. Therefore, an organization management team should be responsible when implementing and supporting a governance structure before a project begins. References Garland, R., 2009. Project Governance: A Practical Guide to Effective Project Decision Making. London: Kogan Page Pu blishers. Kerzner, H. and Sponholtz, J. 2011. Project Management Metrics, KPIs, and Dashboards: A Guide to Measuring and Monitoring Project Performance. NJ: John Wiley and Sons Publisher. Muller, R., 2009. Project Governance; Fundamentals of project management. Surrey: Gower Publishing, Ltd. Nickerson, J. Zenger, T. 2004. Organization Science; A Knowledge-Based Theory of the Firm; the Problem-Solving Perspective. Web. PM4DEV. 2008. Fundamentals of Project Management. NY: Lulu.com Publisher. Renz, P., 2007. Project governance: implementing corporate governance and business ethics in nonprofit organizations. Berlin: Springer Publishers. Robinson, H. et al. 2010. Governance and Knowledge Management for Public-Private Partnerships. NJ: John Wiley and Sons Publisher. Treasury board of Canada secretariat. 2008. Project Organization; Project governance. Web. Turner, R., 2007. Gower handbook of project management. 4th edition. Surrey: Gower Publishing Ltd. Vallabhaneni, D., 2009. Whatâ€⠄¢s Your MBA IQ? A Manager’s Career Development Tool. NJ: John Wiley and Sons Publisher. World Bank. 2009. Attracting investors to African public-private partnerships: a project preparation guide. Washington DC: World Bank Publications. This assessment on Project Governance was written and submitted by user Mikayla Cline to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Paul Strassmans The Politics of Information Management Policy Guidelines

Paul Strassmans The Politics of Information Management Policy Guidelines Abstract Paul Strassman is one of the most outstanding gurus in the field of organizational politics and governance. This paper provides a brief insight into Strassman’s vision of information technologies management and its implications for politics and governance.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Paul Strassmans The Politics of Information Management: Policy Guidelines specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Paul Strassman’s book The Politics of Information Management: Policy Guidelines is used as the primary source of information about Strassman and his vision of information management in organizations. The issues of power, politics, organizational relations, and a balance between organizational power and reason are discussed. Managing information is a complex process. The role of information technologies in all fields of organizational and human performance constantly increases, and information systems manag ement is gradually becoming the issue of the top public concern. It should be noted, that managing information systems is not merely a matter of technological decision-making. In the world of globalization, integration, and sophisticated technologies, information systems exemplify a unique source of power, which can readily change the balance of political, social, economic, and cultural forces at a global scale. Unfortunately, not everyone can easily recognize that information systems have profound implications for organizational politics and governance. Paul Strassman suggests that, to ensure that information technologies matter, Chief Information Officers must have sufficient authority to set and execute information systems management policies. However, this is only one side of the coin, since organizations must be able to maintain a reasonable balance of information power. Organizations must limit CIO’s authority to the degree, which does not damage their corporate reputat ion and performance. Paul Strassman is an outstanding professional, expert, and guru in the field of information management. His book The Politics of Information Management: Policy Guidelines provides a brief insight into how information systems management is related to politics, power, authority, and governance in organizations. It should be noted, that the discussion of information systems management is often limited to its technical and technological aspects. This, according to Strassman (1995), is one of the major organizational mistakes. A former chief executive and strategic planning professional in three multinational corporations, Strassman (1995) is confident that â€Å"managing information systems is primarily a matter of politics and only secondarily a matter of technology† (p.xxv).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Strassman (1995) believes that in formation management is inseparable from politics, as long as management of information defines the patterns of organizations, and availability of information in the free market system predetermines the scope and availability of market power. Thus, organizations and their information resources are synonymous with power; consequentially, organizations and information systems management are also synonymous with politics (Strassman, 1995). This is, probably, why Strassman (2005) suggests that a CIO must have sufficient authority to create, set, and execute information systems management policies. Otherwise, information technologies and information will never become sufficiently important for organizations (Strassman, 2005). Strassman’s suggestions regarding the politics of information management are not without controversy. His ideas regarding the CIOs’ role in information management and information politics pose a serious challenge to organizational stability, growth, an d governance principles. That information is inseparable from politics cannot be denied (Finney, 1999). Failure to recognize the political implications of information creation and management limits the scope of information management power in organizations (Finney, 1999; Strassman, 1995). However, whether or not CIOs can turn information systems into the source of organizational and market power is difficult to predict. On the one hand, political information structures vary across organizations: Finney (1999) lists at least five different information management systems and claims that true IS professionals must be able to determine, in what kind of environment they operate. For example, federalism implies that the process of sharing information takes place through negotiation (Finney, 1999). In the conditions of feudalism, individual departments control all information processes (Finney, 1999). Needless to say, different organizational systems impose different requirements on IS pro fessionals, organizational members and stakeholders. On the other hand, not all CIOs have skills, abilities, and knowledge to cope with their information management obligations. In information systems management, the boundary between success and failure is increasingly blurred. The case of the CIO described by Evan Schuman (2005) is very demonstrative: non-technical partners do not care of the negative aspects of technology projects.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Paul Strassmans The Politics of Information Management: Policy Guidelines specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Rather, â€Å"they want to know that their problems are being heard [†¦] and to hear that responsible adults are taking care of the matter and that all will be fine† (Schuman, 2005). When Strassman (2005) writes that CIOs must have power and authority to set and execute information management policies, he must also add that setting and ex ecuting information management policies must not damage corporate reputation. Obviously, the power and authority of CIOs can be equally beneficial and detrimental to companies’ organizational and market performance. As a result, companies must develop policies that give CIOs the power and authority to manage information systems but limit their obligations to the degree that does not damage corporate performance and reputation. Conclusion The process of managing information systems is integrally linked to the questions of power, authority, and politics. Strassman (1995) is correct in that managing information systems is a matter of politics rather than technology. Information has already become an efficient source of organizational and market power; as a result, information systems are synonymous with politics. Unfortunately, Strassman’s suggestion that CIOs must set and execute information management policies is not without controversy. On the one hand, different organ izations run different systems of information management, which impose unique information management requirements on them. On the other hand, not all CIOs have skills and abilities needed to manage information systems and, consequentially, power relations within organizations. As a result, given the profound political implications of information resources, organizations must give their CIOs power and authority to set and execute information policies and, simultaneously, limit their obligations to the extent that does not damage corporate reputation and performance. References Finney, R. (1999). The politics of information and projects. Itm Web. Web. Schuman, E. (2005). The CIO who admitted too much. CIO Insight. Retrieved from  https://www.cioinsight.com/Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Strassman, P.A. (1995). The politics of information management: Policy guidelines.  New York: Strassman Inc. Strassman, P.A. (2005). Check: How to verify if you are important. CIO Insight. Retrieved from https://www.cioinsight.com/c/a/Expert-Voices/Check-How-to-Verify-if-You-are-Important

Choose Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Choose - Essay Example The study aims to investigate that how risk is challenging and can be undermining for organizations if not dealt or encountered at the first level. How risk can be assessed, dealt and managed are further areas of study in this report. The objective here is to understand the risk in the wider perspective in order to apply the models and principles of risk management effectively. The Conception of Risk in Organizations According to the contemporary literature, risk is an uncertainty, which revolves around every modern organization. It is an uncertainty which organization carries throughout its life period. The periods of success and certainly the period of failures are filled with risk and uncertainty (Damodaran). Risk is actually an effect or a consequence that attaches to an organization due to its environment. Environment is one major source of risk and therefore, it is the environment that inputs risk in organization’s structure, culture and system altogether (Damodaran 5). Risk is actually a state of vulnerability. When organizations are vulnerable to their environments, they carry the influential factor of risk or uncertainty. Actually, all organizations are vulnerable, but only those are less vulnerable or more protected which know how to deal with the risk’s influence (Pathak 570). ... Similarly, the cultural risk, the decision making risk, the risk in the leadership style of practice, and risk in the management style are certainly internal risk influences. From this understanding it can be elaborated, that risk management in organizations is all about managing these two types of risk influences - internal and external risk influences. When both internal and external risks are managed or controlled, the organization is freer on its progress, performance and deliverance states. So the need is to focus on these two types of risks (internal and external) which evolve with organization system intangibly and precisely (Damodaran 8). The example of risk can be taken from an organization, which is moving and expanding to a new international market. The risks of the environment of that new market will certainly be the risk channelized to the expanding organization (Andersen and Schroder). The organization will be catching political, social, economical and cultural risks fr om the environment of the new market. Another example of risk can be taken from the organization merging with a new organization. The risks of the merger will directly influence both the organizations. In that case, risk will be divided, but still left for both organizations to manage it collaboratively (Andersen and Schroder 10). When is a Risk not a Risk? Risk as a Threat In the modern perspective, risk is described as a highly probable event. As the risk’s probability is higher the probability of its consequences is higher too as it is a foreseen and known event in modern organizations (Buehler and Freeman). By knowing the risk and risk consequences,

Report The impact of development management in Scotland Essay

Report The impact of development management in Scotland - Essay Example The needs of communities worldwide have been radically increased the last decades – the increase of the number of their population and the changes in the patterns/ style of life are considered to be the major reasons for the above outcome. The government in Scotland has produced the Planning Act 2006 aiming to support the spatial planning and development across the particular region – among other benefits also achieved through this legal text; in the above Act a new term, the development management, is introduced; this term replaces the previously used term ‘development control’; the aspects of development management are examined in this paper focusing on the value of this concept on the spatial planning process. The case of Local Development plan produced by the Aberdeenshire Council is used as an example to highlight the value of development management as an effective framework for creating effective spatial plans. The concept of development management has been introduced in order to respond to the increased needs for effective spatial development. In the past, the progress of spatial planning has been monitored using various policies taking into consideration the characteristics and the needs of each community; spatial development emphasizes on the integration of the relevant activities, i.e. the simultaneous development of various planning initiatives so that the improvement of the spatial structure of a specific region to be guaranteed. In this way, development management can lead to the increase of the effectiveness of the governmental policies in relation to the spatial development and control; the improvement of the relationship between the government and the local communities is then expected to follow. In order to understand the value of development management – especially in comparison to previous concepts, like the development control – it is necessary to refer

Body Ritual among the Nacirema Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Body Ritual among the Nacirema - Essay Example It has similarly attracted many anthropologists whose concern is to identify and to expose the special unique practices (Murdock, p. 506) their practices embrace the limits to which people’s behavior could explore. The name Nacirema would be reversed to mean American and in that context the majority of the outsiders actually consider them total reverse due to their strange and unique practices. In addition to that, the culture of body ritual among the Nacirema asserts that the body is quite in an ugly state and is vulnerable to diseases and infections. These are a major concern since man intends to make the body appealing, stronger and resistant to illness. And this they believe can be countered through a series of rituals and traditional ceremonies. In respect to that, every household owns a shrine indoors for these purposes. The amount of the shrines owned by a household would, therefore be dependent on their social status and economic depth. For instance, the opulence of a family is based on the number of ritual shrines that they posses. Most houses of the Nacirema group of individuals are made of daub and wattle. However, the shrines are built with strong magnificent stones an illustration of the special attachments and considerations of the shrines.this may seem so public but the rituals of every family secret to its members. Among the many daily body rituals performed include the mouth rite. It entails an insertion of a smaller hog of hair pieces into the mouth accompanied with a powder that is magical and ultimately running the bundle in precious formalized routines of gestures. Another mouth rite, though done once or two times a year, is the private mouth rite. The procedure looks scarier and is a visual torture to most anthropologists who dare to unveil the practice. It involves more paraphernalia that consists of probes, augers

Detailed models of strategic change management

Detailed models of strategic change management This unit helps would-be-managers to understand the nature of change and to cope with it. It gives an understanding about change and the ways to manage with it without disturbing the working of the organization. In this unit we have discussed the different definitions and models of change which have been given by thinkers in the past which helps in evaluating the relevance of models of strategic change to organizations in the current economy. As we proceed, we examine the need for change and assess the factors that are driving the need for it. Also, the resource implications are discussed which do not respond to strategic change. The theories given by Kotter, Prosci, Lewis and others are milestones of the research on change management. Their theories have helped in thorough understanding of change management. As the topic develops, it gives vital information on the reasons of change in markets, budget pressures, new technologies and other new programs such as TQM and re-engineering. All in all, the topic is an important resource on the factors and implications that bring change. Another unavoidable and inseparable resource of the organization is stakeholders of the company. The topic discusses about systems modelling, divergence and convergence and methods of involving them into organization. It is also quite obvious that change brings resistance; therefore this unit enables us to manage resistance giving a way to strategies such as communications, education, forums, etc. The entire work gives a clear picture of change management. All a manager needs is to understand the criteria and manage with a difference on the guidelines of the researchers. Task 1: Discuss the Models of Strategic Change There are many theories about how to manage change. Most of the theories originate with leadership and change management guru, John Kotter who is a professor at Harvard Business School and world renowned change expert. The following eight steps in the change process are his contribution. JOHN KOTTER: Eight steps to transforming an organization (Kotter.J, 1995) Establishing a sense of urgency Forming a powerful guiding coalition Creating a vision Communicating the vision Empowering others to act on the vision Planning and creating short term wins Consolidating improvements and producing still more change Institutionalising new approaches Kotters research gave a whole new way to managing change. A programme of planned change and improved performance developed by Lewin involves the management of a three-phase process of behaviour modification. Lewins Change Management Model Source: http://www.infed.org/thinkers/et-lewin.htm Unfreeze- Reducing those forces which behaviour in its present form, recognition of the need for change and improvement to occur. Movement Development of new attitudes or behaviour and the implementation of change. Refreezing Stabilising change at the new level and reinforcement (Hardy 1996) A new culture should be created within the organization such that managers look to change as an opportunity and adapt their business system to continuously emerging conditions. (Hussey 2000) Proscis ADKAR Effective change management demands five key goals to form the basic ADKAR model: Awareness of the need to change Desire to participate and support the change Knowledge of how to change (and what change looks like) Ability to implement the change on a day-to-day basis Reinforcement to keep the change in place (Hiatt 2003) Proscis ADKAR Source: http://techotoys.com/qwxDnJu0J/ Action Research Action research refers to a way to look at ones own work practically and check as he would like it to be. Because research is done by the person himself or the practitioner, it is called practitioner based research. It is also referred to as a form of self reflective practice because it involves the person himself and his own work. (Hardy 1999) Action research Source: http://www.llas.ac.uk/projects/2837 Task 1.2 Evaluate the relevance of models of strategic change to organizations in the current economy Teambuilding Consensus Strategic change models, as discussed above are the keys to success of any organization provided they are implemented in a sophisticated way. To achieve effective team decision making leadership, (Franzen 1994) describes Consensus Team Decision Making CTDM model which has three key pillars. Maintain high conceptual level Strive towards consensus Manage the decision making process Strategic interventions Types of interventions selected for a project although depend on variety; they are highly concentrated in a project. Strategic interventions are useful in situations like Rapid changes in the external environment Rapid or stagnant sales Increased competition Rapid expansion of markets Mergers and acquisitions (Lewin 2005) Decision Making Contingency Theory of Decision Making Decision participative contingency theory or the Normative Decision Theory is a model which says that the efficiency of a decision procedure depends on a number of aspects of the situation: the importance of decision quality and acceptance; the quantity of relevant information possessed by the leader and subordinates. (Fiedler 1999) In the autocratic style, the leader takes decisions without consulting others. (Lewin 2005) The participative style leadership, also known as participative democratic leadership style does the job of creating and maintaining healthy relationships between the employees and their leaders.(Kotter 2007) Proactive and Reactive (Whitehead 2006) PROACTIVE REACTIVE Needs to have and use own answers Understands the power of and uses team in solving problems Makes decisions by self Requests that team members make decisions Pushes for results Shares a vision so compelling the team wants to move towards it Reacts to change Foresees and influences change Teaches team to expect direction Teaches team to be self reliant Focuses on finding and fixing problems Focuses on achieving performance outcomes Quick to punish on mistakes Lets the team learn by errors Task 1.3 Assess the value of using strategic intervention techniques in the organization The most important asset of any organization is human resource and strategic intervention helps them to adjust with the changing strategies of the organization and understand it.(George 1999). At Sapphire Beauty Box, it is vital to have a peaceful mind and sound behaviour as this profession deals with direct clientele. The method of strategic intervention assists the employees of Sapphire to find meanings to their life, discover what, and why they do and how to meet their needs in positive and negative ways which helps to promote sustainable change. (Hiatt 2006) Human Process Interventions: These are helpful in particular during change project in organizations where there are some combinations of many new employees, different cultures, working together, many conflicts, etc. Activities: Coaching, counseling, delegating, group learning, virtual teams, etc. ( Hiatt and Creasey 2003) Techno-structural Interventions: These interventions are helpful in particular for rapid growth but few internal systems to sustain growth, many complaints from customers, etc. Activities: Balanced scorecard, downsizing and out placing, ISO 9000, Six sigma, etc.(Kurt 2005) Human Resource Management interventions: These interventions are helpful in situations like establishment of new organizational goals, implementation of technology for a short time, low productivity, etc. Activities: Staffing, evaluating performance, career development, employee wellness programme (George 1999) Task 2.1 Examine the need for strategic change in the chosen organization Reasons for change Change in market: The United Kingdom is going through recession and there has been recession and the CPI annual inflation has rose to 3.3%. (London Business Times 2009). There has been increase in prices, job loss, bankruptcy and what not. Every business has gone through losses and needs to cover up their expenses. (Fiedler 1999). At this point of time, Sapphire needs to change accordingly to ease customers at their purse and still keep them coming. Economic downturns: Due to price rise, the raw material needed at the store is also become expensive. It is important to cover the costs by bringing about change in the organization. (Paul 1996) Customer Expectations: There is a very hard competition in the market especially in the beauty field. Customers get attracted to offers and it is not easy to get their confidence. To invest into customers, It is important to change the strategies accordingly. (Kotter and Cohen 2002) Competitive Edge: Competition is healthy but can be fatal if the strategies become too monotonous and outdated. There is need for change to face competition. (Kotter 1995) Sapphire needs to be updated with products and material being used by competitors and try to do better than other turning the tables towards them. (Kotter 2007) Mergers: The merger of the organization with another can lead to change in strategy as the new staff can have better ideas and plans to make the company a success. (Paul 1996). If Sapphire merges with another company to make it a success, it may have to revise the ways to do things. Change in mission: If the mission of the company changes, obviously there has to be a different strategy to deal with it. The mission of Sapphire is to fight ageing and make people look beautiful but now the market demands more of stress releasing treatments. So Sapphire needs to rethink about its strategy. (Franzen and Hardaker 1999) Task 2.2 Assess the factors that are driving the need for strategic change in an organization The Shifting Economy The economy is so very changing and dynamic. Due to the unpredictability of it, the organization is in constant need of change in the strategy and economic plan. This is more prevalent since recession Environmental factors There are certain environmental changes that have an effect on the production and sales. These changes are to be monitored and the demand of change arises. Financial pressure There occur financial pressures on the organizations, in order to meet deadlines and targets. In order to handle finances, there has to be a change in finance plans. This is where the need for change management occurs. Technological advances There has been drastic change in production, marketing, outsourcing and other fields due to technology. The organization needs upgrading and has to keep in pace with the technological advances to succeed in its mission and make way for growth. Keeping in mind the factors discussed above, there is a need for change. Funding cuts With the recession in the economy, the company has cut down on costs and funds. There is need for change in financial strategy to keep the balance. Competition Competition is a healthy asset for any business. To keep up to the standards and do better than others is very important, hence it is vital to keep a watch at what others are doing and bring change in the company accordingly. Task 2.3 Assess the resource implications of the organization not responding to strategic change Restructuring of HR- If the company does not respond to the changes as discussed above, it may have to face severe consequences and lose in the process. The organization will have to restructure the HR making way for a new beginning. There have to be leaders chosen again and staff employed for the smooth working of the company. Interview and hire of new employees Interviewing and hiring of new staff will have to be done which is a time consuming and costly process for any business. Redundancies The organization will have redundancies if proper steps for the change are not taken in time. This will affect the working and time management of the strategy of work. Training Training is another costly and time taking process. It takes a lot to train the employees and bear the costs. If the need for strategic change is understood, there is no need for the organization to bear costs or losses. Task 3.1 Develop systems to involve stakeholders in the planning of change in the chosen organization A stakeholder is one who has something to gain or lose through the outcomes of a planning process or project. These are also called interest groups and can have a strong bearing on the outcomes of political processes. It is useful for research projects to identify and analyse the needs and concerns of different stakeholders, particularly when these projects have an effect on policy Input-output transformation model Operations management transforms inputs (labour, capital, equipment, land, buildings, materials and information) into outputs (goods and services) that provide added value to customers. Transformation System is the critical element in the model that determines how well the company produces goods and services that meet consumer needs. It does not matter whether the organization is a for-profit company, a non-profit organization (religious organizations, hospitals, etc.), or a government agency; all organizations must strive to maximize the quality of their transformation processes to meet customer needs. Steps Involved Step 1: Clarify the research or policy change objective (Problem Tree Analysis or objectives analysis might help with this.) Stap 2: Identify all the stakeholders or interest groups associated with this objective, problem or issue. Stakeholders can be organizations, groups, departments, structures, networks or individuals. http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5257HYPERLINK http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5257title=stakeholder-analysisHYPERLINK http://www.odi.org.uk/resources/details.asp?id=5257title=stakeholder-analysistitle=stakeholder-analysis Step 3: Using the grid organise the stakeholders in different matrices according to their interest and power. Interest measures to what degree they may to be affected by the research project. Power measures the influence they have over the project or policy, and to what degree they can help achieve, or block, the desired change. The Cultural Web The Cultural Web http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newSTR_90.htm The Cultural Web identifies six interrelated elements Johnson and Scholes (2002) call it the paradigm the pattern or model of the work environment. By analyzing the factors in each, you can begin to see what is working, what isnt working, and what needs to be changed. The six elements are: The past events and people talked about inside and outside the company. Who and what the company chooses to celebrate say a great deal about what it values, and perceives as great behaviour. The daily behaviour and actions of people that indicate acceptable behaviour. This determines what is expected to happen in given situations, and what is valued by management. The visual representations of the company including logos, how exquisite the offices are, and the dress codes. Multiple Cause Diagrams Multiple cause diagrams http://ilearn.cto.int/login/index.php Multiple cause diagrams are a way of using interconnectedness to shape up a complex situation. They represent both adequate and casual cause without making a distinction between them. This system is pictured as an interconnected group of events or effects to cause an effect as a purpose. Sometimes, if the input cause is removed, the output cause continues to happen, may be because feedback loops are present or other causes drive the effect. Influencing skills The careless reception of authority is becoming increasingly less common in the world. To get things done, it is better to rely on commitment rather than authority. For example, gaining co-operation from other departments. Task 3.2 Develop a change management strategy with stakeholders in the chosen organization Developing a winning strategy is messier than textbooks suggest. Most insights that are important for formulating strategies rest in the heads of operating managers. (Kotter 2007) The Stakeholder Circle This is designed to put stakeholders on the project management radar. It is a proven method supported by a tough, easy to use tool that guides us through five easy steps namely: Identify your projects stakeholders and understand their needs Prioritize the stakeholders on the basis of power, proximity and urgency. Visualize the key stakeholders using the Stakeholder Circle. Engage with the stakeholders by building and implementing an effective communication plan. Monitor changes as you update and review your stakeholders at key points in the project. Public Hearings: There can be events where stakeholders are allowed to give evidence or question general public authorities about decisions. Public hearings: Regulated, formal arrangements for times and places at which members of the general public and other types of stakeholders can give evidence or question public authorities about decisions. Deliberative Polling: This collects views when people are introduced to the issue and think about it. It also includes a feedback session. Task 3.3 Evaluate the systems used to involve stakeholders in the planning of change in the chosen organization The stakeholder model is helpful in explaining the rules of the economic game and the link between stakeholder value and competitive advantage. The stakeholder strategy plan guides us on how to interact and communicate with each stakeholder during different stages of a project. It also helps to define who should participate, in what ways and on what level of the project. It gives thorough knowledge of the matter and suits best to most organizations. Other ways such as polling, seminars and workshops are also perfect ways to handle change in a proper manner. Task 3.4 Create a strategy for managing resistance to change in the chosen organization Selective Perception: Peoples self interpretation of stimuli presents a unique image of the real world and results in selective perception. This leads to biased view of the situation that fits into the perception of reality. Habit: People are used to the same way of doing things which makes a habit. It becomes serves as a source of comfort. Bringing about change brings resistance. Loss of Freedom: If the change is seen as an inconvenience, it reduces freedom of action or results in increased control, there will be resistance. Direct vs Indirect There is staff that may resist directly and others that may be indirect in resistance. Direct resistance is to oppose in a direct manner and fighting straight but indirect resistance is to show resistance by making excuses such as resigning. Task 4.1 Develop appropriate models for change in the chosen organization that will reflect their circumstances The best model for change that applies to Sapphire Beauty Box is Proscis Five Building Blocks change management model which includes the ADKAR The first thing Sapphire needs is the Awareness of the need for change. If the need for change is understood, half the job is done. Planned communication is essential for understanding. Sapphire needs change as there is a need for it. Next is the Desire to participate and help the change. The employees of Sapphire need to make a personal decision to support the change and sustain it too. The CEO announced incentives for individuals creating a desire to be a part of the change. The third building block is providing Knowledge. Sapphire held a seminar for imparting awareness for change, how to undergo change and how to implement it. Prosci (2003) suggested forums and mentoring for knowledge of change. Ability to implement required skills and behavior is another building block of the ADKAR model. It is the difference between theory and practice. Once knowledge is imparted on change, the performance of the individual needs to be supported. Sapphire can do this by practice, coaching and feedback. Lat, but not the least comes Reinforcement. It is the final and essential stage of the model where efforts to sustain the change is accentuated. It is to be ensured that changes stay in place and individuals do not revert to old ways. The ways to do it are positive feedback, recognition, rewarding, etc. Sapphire makes it a point to take feedback of the customers as well as the employees to keep both sides balanced. There is a Best Employee of the Month award scheme at Sapphire Beauty Box which inspires employees to do their best. Proscis Change Management Model http://www.change-management.com/tutorial-adkar-overview.htm Task 4.2 Plan to implement a model for change considering the internal and external circumstances impacting on the organization Kaizen Method This is a Japanese method for continuous incremental improvement. It is a concept for gradual, continuous improvement. It assumes that every aspect of life has to be constantly improved. The main elements of Kaizen are effort, quality, and willingness to change, communication and involvement of employees. Its five founding elements are Teamwork Personal Discipline Improved Morale Quality Circles and Suggestions for Improvement. The Kaizen method is best for Sapphire Beauty Box as it is people oriented, requires long term discipline and easy to implement. Matrix Organizations This kind of organization offers the advantages of flexibility, greater security and control of project information. It establishes a grid with a two way flow of authority and responsibility. Task 4.3 Develop appropriate measures to monitor progress of the developed model Goal Based Evaluation To start with goal based evaluation, there can be two main questions we can ask for How has the programme made a difference Are the participants of the programme feeling better as a result of the programme? Outcome based evaluation is a way that determines if the project at Sapphire Beauty Box have achieved its goals. The organized process using OBE helps to establish clear outcomes, to measure benefits, clarify groups for which benefits are targeted. Other ways to monitor progress in Sapphire Beauty Box are regular reports of the activities being practiced in there. Meetings are also undertaken by higher authorities to administer the changes and keep a watch on them. Quality Circles appear simple and straightforward but have to be viewed in regard to Japanese culture and management systems. Quality circles are do work and are used successfully by British organizations. . CONCLUSION It can be concluded that strategic change is the key factor in any organization. Change is a pervasive influence. We are all subject to change in one form or the other which is continuous. The steps to change from Kotter give vital knowledge about making change Kotter is called the GURU in terms of change management. Proscis ADKAR building blocks give deep understanding and guidance for applying change and monitoring it to sustain change. Kurt Lewins change model is also an important one. The freeze, refreeze and transition stages develop new attitudes and behaviour.

The Element: Chlorine Essay -- essays research papers

The Element: Chlorine General Information We researched the chemical element known as chlorine. Chlorine has an atomic number of 17 and an atomic weight of 35.453. It has a valence number of 3. The element has 3 energy levels. Chlorine exists as a greenish-yellow gas at normal temperatures and pressures. Chlorine is second in reactivity only to fluorine among the halogen elements. Chlorine is a nonmetal. It is estimated that 0.045% of the earth’s crust and 1.9% of sea water are chlorine. Chlorine combines with metals and nonmetals and organic materials to form hundreds of chlorine compounds. Chlorine is about 2.5 times as dense as air and moderately soluble in water, forming a pale yellowish green solution. Chlorine is so reactive that it never occurs free in nature. Chemical Properties Chlorine is in the halogen family, and like all the other halogen elements chlorine has a strong tendency to gain one electron and become a chloride ion. Chlorine readily reacts with metals to form chlorides, most of which are soluble in water. Chlorine also reacts directly with many nonmetals such as sulfur, phosphorus, and other halogens. Chlorine can support combustion; if a candle were to be thrown into a vessel of chlorine, it would continue to burn, releasing dense, black clouds of smoke, The chlorine combines with hydrogen of the paraffin, forming hydrogen chloride, and uncombined carbon is left in the form of soot. Soot is black residue from fuel. Chlorine replaces iodine and bromine from their salts. Dry chlorine is somewhat inert or not able to move, but moist chlorine unites directly with most of the elements. History Chlorine was discovered in 1774 by Karl Scheele. Humphry Davy proved that chlorine was an element. Extensive production began 100 years later. During the 20th Century. The amount of Chlorine used was considered a measure of industrial growth. In, 1975 chlorine productions ranked seventh on the list of largest-volume chemicals produced in the United States. The importance of chlorine has changed as new uses have been added. In 1925 paper and pulp used over one- half . The chlorine made and chemical products only 10%. By the 1960’s paper and pulp use accounted for only 15-17% and the chemical uses increased to 75-80%. Peoples uses have contributed to the growth of large cities, and new textiles, plastics, paints, and miscellaneous uses have raise... ...h chlorine. At the iron cathode or negatively charged electrode, sodium ions are reduced to sodium metal, which reacts immediately with water to form sodium hydroxide. Another method of preparing chlorine is by the electrolysis of molten salt. This process is used specifically to produce sodium, and the chlorine is a commercial by product. When large quantities of waste hydrochloric and are available. Chlorine may be recovered by oxidation of the acid. This method has the advantage of converting great quantities of waste acid to useful substances. No matter what process is used to prepare chlorine, the gas must be well dried. Dry chlorine is much less corrosive than moist chlorine gas. In the laboratory chlorine may be prepared by heating manganese oxide with hydrochloric acid. Conclusion In conclusion chlorine is a very wonderful element. Chlorine has hundreds of compounds. If we did not have these compounds we would not have clean water, we would have an insect problem, we could not make many important compounds that are used in medicine, and some of the battles in World War I might have been lost if it were not for chlorine. Our world would not be the same if not for chlorine.